The Swing Era and the dissemination of racial discussion

          In its endless cycle of metamorphasis, jazz music underwent major changes in the 1930's. During this period, a new hotter style began to take hold of audiences across the nation. This, “deeply populist” new musical outlet known as swing, coupled with the invention of the radio allowed for an even more widespread appreciation of the jazz genre (Gioia 133). As swing music became more commercialized, it became a breeding ground of sorts for racial debate. This is most likely a result of increased appreciation for black talent within the community in combination with increasing integration in jazz performances. In addition, the underlying principles and ideals of the swing subgenre revolved around liberty, equality, mutual respect, concepts which were bound to stoke racial debate. The combination of the progressive values of swing music, growing ipopularity of integrated ensembles, and increased commercialization forced Americans in the 1930's to address the ever-present issue of race.

          Specifically, swing represented a shift in musical thinking involving relative equality. According to David M. Stowe, this shift represented an instance in which the racial and socioeconomic barriers of American segregation were “most permeable” (Stowe 74). With this backdrop, the development of swing ideology celebrated equality, liberty, and tolerance, all of which had largely gained acceptance as venerated American values (Stowe 74). In this sense, the values of swing music represented a shift in attitudes towards more progressivism. This change allowed for a more widespread appreciation of jazz music with less importance attached to the performer's skin color, albeit racial bias in the realm of jazz was far from cured.

          Accompanying this shift in attitudes, the talent of black musicians gained recognition during the period. The works of Benny Goodman, the proclaimed king of swing, and his constituents represent an example of the role race played in swing music. Goodman had a great deal of respect for the talent of black musicians and as such, played alongside several of them including Fletcher Henderson. He used his “preeminence” within the community to break down “barriers of racial prejudice, class distinctions and closed-mindeness” (Gioia 138). Many people admired and respected Goodman's decision to move towards the hotter style of the Henderson orchestra, employing his relative fame to bring the swinging style center stage, while others regarded the decision as another instance of musical appropriation from black to white (Gioia 142). Either way, the issue of race was present in the discussion.

          Ultimately, the contentious nature of discussions on race was facilitated by the emergence of the first “truly nationwide mass medium,” the radio (Gioia 136).With this development, the concept of fame in its modern sense came to be. As such, the propulsion to stardom for artists like Benny Goodman allowed for the appreciation of swing music on a truly national scale. As the nation took notice and swing music became popular culture, the racial contendencies that accompanied it were similarly exposed. The later musical productions of Duke Ellington brought these issues to the forefront of discussion. Specifically, some believed that Ellington's work catered too much to the tastes of white audiences. Certain critics, namely jazz figure John Hammond, believed Ellington's actions represented racial insensitivity and a willing acceptance of racial indignities (Stewart). At any rate, the surge in popularity for Goodman and Ellington allowed by mass commercialization, made it impossible to ignore issues of race that had been present in the jazz community since its foundations.

          To briefly tie things together, the swing era did not necessarily cause racial conflict, but rather clearly presented issues of race that had always existed. Specifically, the surge in popularity of jazz music made possible by the genre's commercialization in the 1930's, allowed for the dissemination of swing ideology. The rise to fame of artists like Benny Goodman and Duke Ellington stoked racial debate not only within the jazz idiom, but across the nation as it made strides towards more progressive ways of thinking. In short, the combination of these three factors is what prompted the nation to address the longstanding issue of racial inequality under the heading of jazz.

Chicago Jazz in the 1920's

     Determining the relative importance of Chicago and New York as facilitating locations of jazz production is difficult for two reasons; first, many talented musicians came out of each location, in some cases the same musician produced music in both Chicago and New York at different times. Second, the music produced in one location influenced and in turn, was influenced by the music produced in the other. Undoubtedly, the mutual influence of these different forms of music coupled with the varying preferences of their respective audiences are the key elements in the formation of a modern day conception of jazz music. That being said, the developments underwent by the genre in Chicago during the 1920's, thanks in large part to the work of musical figures like Bix Beiderbecke, Louis Armstrong and Earl Hines constitute a new brand of jazz, one involving faster tempos and greater influence on solos. Appealing to a wider audience, it was these types of changes that strengthened jazz as an art form and ultimately allowed for its appreciation on a much larger scale.

     Undoubtedly, a contributing factor to the establishment of Chicago as a home for jazz music was the Great Migration, in which “some half-million African Americans left the South for more tolerant communities in the North” (Gioia 45). Among them, the future major players in the Chicago jazz scene, indeed “only those that departed [the south] made major reputations” (Gioia 45). Those making the move however, were not all African American; in fact, musicians of all races and styles converged on the city to take advantage of the economic and expressive opportunities the city presented (Gioia 76). As a result of this demographic influx, Chicago became a hallmark of diversity. This, in combination with the adoption of gigs on a more contractual basis, contributed to Chicago's recognition as an important jazz center (Travis 48). As many of Chicago's nightclubs came under the control of criminal organizations, black jazz artists received recognition from a larger segment of society as they took the stage in front of white audiences (Travis). In summation, each of these factors in cohesion allowed jazz to thrive in Chicago during the 1920's.

     Although some may argue that jazz in Chicago was simply a reformulation of earlier New Orleans' styles, the developments made by musicians such as the Austin High Gang, Eddie Condon, Bix Beiderbecke, and Louis Armstrong provide justification for Chicago jazz not only as a unique musical style, but as “a way of life” (Gioia 74). Widely referred to as 'hot jazz,' the music produced here during this time caught many people off guard. The fast-paced syncopation and upbeat rhythm of early Chicago jazz contained within it a certain “restless energy” (Gioia 75). It was this “juxtaposition of rhythmic notions” that promoted a sort of “agitated feeling” within the mind of the listener” (Chicagoans 161). During this time, thirty-two-bar forms became the prefered medium of performance while elements of blues and ragtime largely fell by the wayside. (Gioia 77). As jazz gained recognition from different segments of society, the mass market began to take hold of jazz music contributing to the genre's place in popular culture.

     Of the dozens of incredibly talented musicians present at the time, none exemplifies the adaptive nature of Chicago jazz music better than Louis Armstrong. Aside from his renowned capacities for improvisation, Louis Armstrong possessed the ability to adapt to the preferences of different audiences. This ability comes to light in Armstrong's level of comfort “working within the narrower confines of popular music” (Gioia 66). It was in the bustling environment of Chicago that Louis Armstrong composed the Hot Fives and Hot Sevens, perhaps the most beloved and inspirational body of work ever produced under the heading of jazz (Gioia 60).