Reflecting on BLST14

          Prior to enrolling in this course, my jazz knowledge was extremely limited. I knew a few basic facts about the genre, but the historical background of it was something I largely had no idea about. For example, I had some idea that jazz rose to fame from New Orleans and then spread out from there, but I did not realize how large a role race played in the genre's formation from its beginnings at Storyville to its later developments in Chicago and New York. Although I learned many things, to me, the most surprising aspect of the course was the extent to which the innovation of black musicians was marginalized as white musicians and more generally, white society appropriated an inherently black art form.

          In reality, white appropriation of black innovation has been widespread and unrelenting throughout jazz's history. Perhaps better than anyone else, prominent black jazz figures like Louis Armstrong and Miles Davis truly understand the pervasive nature of this pattern. In his autobiography, Davis expresses his frustration when he says, “I hate how white people always try to take credit for something after they discover it—like it wasn't happening before they found out about it” (Miles 44). Speaking in relation to New York's largely segregated nightclubs and music venues, he goes on to say, “the musicians and the people who really loved and respected bebop and the truth know that the real thing happened up in Harlem, at Minton's” (Miles 45). Undoubtedly, these words make clear the gaping disparity between a black art form and white representations of that art form.

          Although Davis's words are effective in shedding light on the frustration experienced by black musicians, the extent of appropriation can be traced back much further to the genre's beginnings in New Orleans. Take for instance, the Original Dixieland Jazz band; although made up solely of white musicians, this group “was the first to make commercial recordings” of jazz music, a genre that even at this early stage, was “distinctly African American” (Gioia 37). Similarly, black jazz innovation in Chicago was exploited in a rather explicit sense via the Plantation System in place at many of the city's nightclubs (Travis). In later years, as it was forced to adapt to the preferences of white audiences, jazz music was, in a sense watered-down with the development of the “deeply populist” sub-genre known as swing (Gioia 133). Although these are only a few of many examples, addressing them side by side leads one to understand that appropriation has existed throughout time and across geographical boundaries.

          At any rate, I have learned much more about jazz over the last few months than I ever thought I would know. I believe I have gained a strong understanding of jazz's musical and historical developments throughout the twentieth century, one that has fostered within me a growing appreciation for the genre and more generally, for artistic contributions made by African Americans. In my opinion, this has been the most crucial aspect of the class. Moving forward, I plan to continue researching the contributions to mainstream society made by black cultural innovators, a field that I believe mainstream society often glazes over. 

Community and Art at San Juan Hill and Leimert Park

          For musicians of any genre, most would agree that environment shapes production. The physical and social factors surrounding daily life are undoubtedly the principle forces that shape cultural expression. The same can be said in regards to San Juan Hill and its lasting impression on the musical innovation of Thelonious Monk, one of jazz's most prominent names in the modern age. Despite racial tension fueled by high levels of diversity, blacks at San Juan Hill were able to come together through music. Thanks in large part to its religious prevalence and the economic opportunities it presented, music facilitated unity. The blending of cultural traditions made possible by this unity in turn, exerted their own influence on the artistic expression of musicians like Monk. In this environment, the relationship between art and community becomes clear: artistic expression is empowered by a sense of community, and conversely, community is strengthened by artistic expression.

          Initially, San Juan Hill embodied the racial tension prevalent in the United States during the period. Economic division between races was clear, living conditions for blacks were predominately poor, and race-fueled violence was intense and ongoing (Kelley 16-17). Racism however, extended beyond interactions between white and black to encompass relationships among blacks from different backgrounds. Specifically, a significant portion of the black population, “about twenty percent” hailed from the British West Indies (Kelley 18). This form of racial tension sheds light on the potentially negative effects that diversity can have on the well-being of a community.

          Despite racial tensions, the black community found common strength in music and religion, two forces that facilitated increasing solidarity. Boasting the largest number of black musicians in New York, jazz music flourished in San Juan Hill. Largely a result of the economic opportunities it presented, one resident of the Phipps tenements recalled “hearing music constantly in the hallways and in the streets” (Kelley 19). In this sense, common artistic expression contributed to solidarity. Similarly, many members of the black community found that Christianity and gospel music helped foster solidarity, ultimately contributing to a “strong sense of community” (Kelley 20). For Thelonious, this idea rings true when, in his twenties, he “became stooped in the sacred music of the black Baptist tradition” (Kelley 27). In this sense, music and religion inspired artistic innovation while bringing the community together at the same time. At any rate, these two examples prove that art and community can be mutually facilitating.

          As time went on, cultural blending of West Indians and Southerners became the norm. In this environment, “virtually every kid became a kind of cultural hybrid” (Kelley 23). Thelonious was no exception; in this more communal setting, he “absorbed Caribbean music” (Kelley 23). As the positive aspects of diversity became clear, block parties offered another means of cultural exchange, one that Monk became very familiar with (Kelley). After some exposure, Thelonious came to the realization that jazz music was the genre for him. Anything he could not pick up by way of formal lessons, he learned from the jazz musicians in his neighborhood (Kelley 26). The urban environment of San Juan Hill ultimately lent his music the quality of “a pure Negro sound” (Kelley 232). In this sense, Monk's work drew significant influence from the environment of San Juan Hill and the musicians present there. As a representation of the blending of different cultural traditions and preferences, the relationship between Monk and his environment exemplifies the idea that “Jazz is New York.”

          Ultimately, the relationship between jazz and San Juan Hill is analogous to the relationship between jazz and Leimert Park. In the same way that music brought people together in San Juan Hill, it brought them together in Leimert Park. Similarly, in the same way that community fostered artistic expression in Leimert Park, it helped foster it at San Juan Hill. In other words, artistic expression in each case, is strengthened by a sense of community, and in turn, the community is strengthened by artistic expression. Finally, I believe the mutually facilitating nature of this relationship can be extended to describe the one between individual musicians and their environments as their music influences and is influenced by their respective environments.

commented on: Katherine Whitlock

The Swing Era and the dissemination of racial discussion

          In its endless cycle of metamorphasis, jazz music underwent major changes in the 1930's. During this period, a new hotter style began to take hold of audiences across the nation. This, “deeply populist” new musical outlet known as swing, coupled with the invention of the radio allowed for an even more widespread appreciation of the jazz genre (Gioia 133). As swing music became more commercialized, it became a breeding ground of sorts for racial debate. This is most likely a result of increased appreciation for black talent within the community in combination with increasing integration in jazz performances. In addition, the underlying principles and ideals of the swing subgenre revolved around liberty, equality, mutual respect, concepts which were bound to stoke racial debate. The combination of the progressive values of swing music, growing ipopularity of integrated ensembles, and increased commercialization forced Americans in the 1930's to address the ever-present issue of race.

          Specifically, swing represented a shift in musical thinking involving relative equality. According to David M. Stowe, this shift represented an instance in which the racial and socioeconomic barriers of American segregation were “most permeable” (Stowe 74). With this backdrop, the development of swing ideology celebrated equality, liberty, and tolerance, all of which had largely gained acceptance as venerated American values (Stowe 74). In this sense, the values of swing music represented a shift in attitudes towards more progressivism. This change allowed for a more widespread appreciation of jazz music with less importance attached to the performer's skin color, albeit racial bias in the realm of jazz was far from cured.

          Accompanying this shift in attitudes, the talent of black musicians gained recognition during the period. The works of Benny Goodman, the proclaimed king of swing, and his constituents represent an example of the role race played in swing music. Goodman had a great deal of respect for the talent of black musicians and as such, played alongside several of them including Fletcher Henderson. He used his “preeminence” within the community to break down “barriers of racial prejudice, class distinctions and closed-mindeness” (Gioia 138). Many people admired and respected Goodman's decision to move towards the hotter style of the Henderson orchestra, employing his relative fame to bring the swinging style center stage, while others regarded the decision as another instance of musical appropriation from black to white (Gioia 142). Either way, the issue of race was present in the discussion.

          Ultimately, the contentious nature of discussions on race was facilitated by the emergence of the first “truly nationwide mass medium,” the radio (Gioia 136).With this development, the concept of fame in its modern sense came to be. As such, the propulsion to stardom for artists like Benny Goodman allowed for the appreciation of swing music on a truly national scale. As the nation took notice and swing music became popular culture, the racial contendencies that accompanied it were similarly exposed. The later musical productions of Duke Ellington brought these issues to the forefront of discussion. Specifically, some believed that Ellington's work catered too much to the tastes of white audiences. Certain critics, namely jazz figure John Hammond, believed Ellington's actions represented racial insensitivity and a willing acceptance of racial indignities (Stewart). At any rate, the surge in popularity for Goodman and Ellington allowed by mass commercialization, made it impossible to ignore issues of race that had been present in the jazz community since its foundations.

          To briefly tie things together, the swing era did not necessarily cause racial conflict, but rather clearly presented issues of race that had always existed. Specifically, the surge in popularity of jazz music made possible by the genre's commercialization in the 1930's, allowed for the dissemination of swing ideology. The rise to fame of artists like Benny Goodman and Duke Ellington stoked racial debate not only within the jazz idiom, but across the nation as it made strides towards more progressive ways of thinking. In short, the combination of these three factors is what prompted the nation to address the longstanding issue of racial inequality under the heading of jazz.

Chicago Jazz in the 1920's

     Determining the relative importance of Chicago and New York as facilitating locations of jazz production is difficult for two reasons; first, many talented musicians came out of each location, in some cases the same musician produced music in both Chicago and New York at different times. Second, the music produced in one location influenced and in turn, was influenced by the music produced in the other. Undoubtedly, the mutual influence of these different forms of music coupled with the varying preferences of their respective audiences are the key elements in the formation of a modern day conception of jazz music. That being said, the developments underwent by the genre in Chicago during the 1920's, thanks in large part to the work of musical figures like Bix Beiderbecke, Louis Armstrong and Earl Hines constitute a new brand of jazz, one involving faster tempos and greater influence on solos. Appealing to a wider audience, it was these types of changes that strengthened jazz as an art form and ultimately allowed for its appreciation on a much larger scale.

     Undoubtedly, a contributing factor to the establishment of Chicago as a home for jazz music was the Great Migration, in which “some half-million African Americans left the South for more tolerant communities in the North” (Gioia 45). Among them, the future major players in the Chicago jazz scene, indeed “only those that departed [the south] made major reputations” (Gioia 45). Those making the move however, were not all African American; in fact, musicians of all races and styles converged on the city to take advantage of the economic and expressive opportunities the city presented (Gioia 76). As a result of this demographic influx, Chicago became a hallmark of diversity. This, in combination with the adoption of gigs on a more contractual basis, contributed to Chicago's recognition as an important jazz center (Travis 48). As many of Chicago's nightclubs came under the control of criminal organizations, black jazz artists received recognition from a larger segment of society as they took the stage in front of white audiences (Travis). In summation, each of these factors in cohesion allowed jazz to thrive in Chicago during the 1920's.

     Although some may argue that jazz in Chicago was simply a reformulation of earlier New Orleans' styles, the developments made by musicians such as the Austin High Gang, Eddie Condon, Bix Beiderbecke, and Louis Armstrong provide justification for Chicago jazz not only as a unique musical style, but as “a way of life” (Gioia 74). Widely referred to as 'hot jazz,' the music produced here during this time caught many people off guard. The fast-paced syncopation and upbeat rhythm of early Chicago jazz contained within it a certain “restless energy” (Gioia 75). It was this “juxtaposition of rhythmic notions” that promoted a sort of “agitated feeling” within the mind of the listener” (Chicagoans 161). During this time, thirty-two-bar forms became the prefered medium of performance while elements of blues and ragtime largely fell by the wayside. (Gioia 77). As jazz gained recognition from different segments of society, the mass market began to take hold of jazz music contributing to the genre's place in popular culture.

     Of the dozens of incredibly talented musicians present at the time, none exemplifies the adaptive nature of Chicago jazz music better than Louis Armstrong. Aside from his renowned capacities for improvisation, Louis Armstrong possessed the ability to adapt to the preferences of different audiences. This ability comes to light in Armstrong's level of comfort “working within the narrower confines of popular music” (Gioia 66). It was in the bustling environment of Chicago that Louis Armstrong composed the Hot Fives and Hot Sevens, perhaps the most beloved and inspirational body of work ever produced under the heading of jazz (Gioia 60).

Blog Post #1

          The location of New Orleans as the birthplace of jazz does not owe itself to one sole factor, but rather to a variety of contributing elements acting in unison. Undoubtedly, a genre that draws influence from African musical traditions would necessarily manifest itself in a location that houses a large population of African Americans. Given this characteristic, New Orleans begins to seem like a suitable birthplace; however, one may also assume that the perfect environment in which to cultivate the arts would be a wealthy one. On the contrary, by the time that jazz began to gain prevalence, the living conditions in New Orleans had become downright incompatible with safety and prosperity. Although it may seem contrary to logic, I believe this was indeed the characteristic of New Orleans that made it a great location for the dissemination of a new, upbeat musical movement. In support of this notion, one can imagine a scenario in which fear and despair grip a person's soul. For instance, as Africans were forcibly removed from their homelands and brought to America as slaves, they clung to the aspects of life that gave them comfort; “Music and folk tales were among the most resilient of these [things]” (Gioia 7). Now turning back to New Orleans, it makes sense that these free African Americans struggling to provide for themselves and their families in the face of dastardly living conditions would turn to the elements of African American culture which granted them comfort. For many people of New Orleans, this was the most affective method of coping with hardship. As an extension, New Orleans was renowned for its fascination with celebration and parties of all kinds. Furthermore, the vibrant red light district known as Storyville or more simply, the District was an ideal location for the formation and growth of jazz music. Specifically, New Orleans jazz music, or dixieland jazz music centered on one instrument, usually the trumpet playing the melody with other instruments improvising around it. At any rate, music was a huge part of life in New Orleans during this time. Many regard the location as one in which music of all types could be enjoyed; “whether high or low, imported or indigenous,” it was said that each genre could find an audience (Gioia 33). In light of these observations, I believe that the most important factor contributing to New Orleans' reputation as the birthplace of jazz would be the presence of hardship and struggle that necessitated it.

          When it comes to interpreting the extent of Mexican influence on New Orleans jazz, one should trace the genre back to the early 1900's. During this time period, some of the city’s most promising musicians were acquiring classical musical instruction from Mexicano instrumentalists” (Johnson 229). In this sense, it becomes clear that Mexican artists had a transnational level of influence on musical developments in the Southern United States. In addition, Mexican influence extended to include new instruments namely, the saxophone and other woodwinds. Lastly, many Mexican immigrants directly influenced the New Orleans jazz scene by playing, teaching, and learning from local artists. In these ways, Mexican influence on New Orleans jazz was far-reaching.  

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